Fundamental to genomic imprinting in mammals is the acquisition of epigenetic marks that differ in male and female gametes at 'imprinting control regions' (ICRs). These marks mediate the allelic expression of imprinted genes in the offspring. Much has been learnt about the nature of imprint marks, the times during gametogenesis at which they are laid down and some of the factors responsible especially for DNA methylation. Recent work has revealed that transcription and histone modifications are critically involved in DNA methylation acquisition, and these findings allow us to propose rational models for methylation establishment. A completely novel perspective on gametic DNA methylation has emerged from epigenomic profiling. Far more differentially methylated loci have been identified in gametes than known imprinted genes, which leads us to revise the notion that methylation of ICRs is a specifically targeted process. Instead, it seems to obey default processes in germ cells, giving rise to distinct patterns of DNA methylation in sperm and oocytes. This new insight, together with the identification of proteins that preserve DNA methylation after fertilization, emphasizes the key role played by mechanisms that selectively retain differential methylation at imprinted loci during early development. Addressing these mechanisms will be essential to understanding the specificity and evolution of genomic imprinting.

In mammalian development, epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation patterns, play a crucial role in defining cell fate but also represent epigenetic barriers that restrict developmental potential. At two points in the life cycle, DNA methylation marks are reprogrammed on a global scale, concomitant with restoration of developmental potency. DNA methylation patterns are subsequently re-established with the commitment towards a distinct cell fate. This reprogramming of DNA methylation takes place firstly on fertilization in the zygote, and secondly in primordial germ cells (PGCs), which are the direct progenitors of sperm or oocyte. In each reprogramming window, a unique set of mechanisms regulates DNA methylation erasure and re-establishment. Recent advances have uncovered roles for the TET3 hydroxylase and passive demethylation, together with base excision repair (BER) and the elongator complex, in methylation erasure from the zygote. Deamination by AID, BER and passive demethylation have been implicated in reprogramming in PGCs, but the process in its entirety is still poorly understood. In this review, we discuss the dynamics of DNA methylation reprogramming in PGCs and the zygote, the mechanisms involved and the biological significance of these events. Advances in our understanding of such natural epigenetic reprogramming are beginning to aid enhancement of experimental reprogramming in which the role of potential mechanisms can be investigated in vitro. Conversely, insights into in vitro reprogramming techniques may aid our understanding of epigenetic reprogramming in the germline and supply important clues in reprogramming for therapies in regenerative medicine.

Inositol 1,4,5'-triphosphate receptor II (IP(3)RII) calcium channel expression is increased in both hypertrophic failing human myocardium and experimentally induced models of the disease. The ectopic calcium released from these receptors induces pro-hypertrophic gene expression and may promote arrhythmias. Here, we show that IP(3)RII expression was constitutively restrained by the muscle-specific miRNA, miR-133a. During the hypertrophic response to pressure overload or neurohormonal stimuli, miR-133a down-regulation permitted IP(3)RII levels to increase, instigating pro-hypertrophic calcium signaling and concomitant pathological remodeling. Using a combination of in vivo and in vitro approaches, we demonstrated that IP(3)-induced calcium release (IICR) initiated the hypertrophy-associated decrease in miR-133a. In this manner, hypertrophic stimuli that engage IICR set a feed-forward mechanism in motion whereby IICR decreased miR-133a expression, further augmenting IP(3)RII levels and therefore pro-hypertrophic calcium release. Consequently, IICR can be considered as both an initiating event and a driving force for pathological remodeling.

Glycation by endogenous dicarbonyl metabolites such as glyoxal is an important spontaneous post-translational (PTM) modification of peptides and proteins associated with structural and functional impairment. The aim of this study was to investigate types and site of PTM of glyoxal-derived advanced glycation end-products-in the neuropeptide substance P by ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR), mass spectrometry, and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) experiments. The main site of PTM by glyoxal was the side chain guanidine moiety of the arginine residue. Binding site identification has been achieved by electron capture dissociation, double-resonance electron capture dissociation, and collision-activated dissociation, with assignment of the modified amino acid residue with mass error <1 ppm.

We created SynSysNet, available online at http://bioinformatics.charite.de/synsysnet, to provide a platform that creates a comprehensive 4D network of synaptic interactions. Neuronal synapses are fundamental structures linking nerve cells in the brain and they are responsible for neuronal communication and information processing. These processes are dynamically regulated by a network of proteins. New developments in interaction proteomics and yeast two-hybrid methods allow unbiased detection of interactors. The consolidation of data from different resources and methods is important to understand the relation to human behaviour and disease and to identify new therapeutic approaches. To this end, we established SynSysNet from a set of ∼1000 synapse specific proteins, their structures and small-molecule interactions. For two-thirds of these, 3D structures are provided (from Protein Data Bank and homology modelling). Drug-target interactions for 750 approved drugs and 50 000 compounds, as well as 5000 experimentally validated protein-protein interactions, are included. The resulting interaction network and user-selected parts can be viewed interactively and exported in XGMML. Approximately 200 involved pathways can be explored regarding drug-target interactions. Homology-modelled structures are downloadable in Protein Data Bank format, and drugs are available as MOL-files. Protein-protein interactions and drug-target interactions can be viewed as networks; corresponding PubMed IDs or sources are given.

A direct interaction of the Arabidopsis thaliana immunophilin ROF1 with phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate was identified using a phosphatidylinositol-phosphate affinity chromatography of cell suspension extracts, combined with a mass spectrometry (nano LC ESI-MS/MS) analysis. The first FK506 binding domain was shown sufficient to bind to both phosphatidylinositol-phosphate stereoisomers. GFP-tagged ROF1 under the control of a 35S promoter was localised in the cytoplasm and the cell periphery of Nicotiana tabacum leaf explants. Immunofluorescence microscopy of Arabidopsis thaliana root tips verified its cytoplasmic localization and membrane association and showed ROF1 localization in the elongation zone which was expanded to the meristematic zone in plants grown on high salt media. Endogenous ROF1 was shown to accumulate in response to high salt treatment in Arabidopsis thaliana young leaves as well as in seedlings germinated on high salt media (0.15 and 0.2 M NaCl) at both an mRNA and protein level. Plants over-expressing ROF1, (WSROF1OE), exhibited enhanced germination under salinity stress which was significantly reduced in the rof1(-) knock out mutants and abolished in the double mutants of ROF1 and of its interacting homologue ROF2 (WSrof1(-)/2(-)). Our results show that ROF1 plays an important role in the osmotic/salt stress responses of germinating Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings and suggest its involvement in salinity stress responses through a phosphatidylinositol-phosphate related protein quality control pathway.

Mice deficient for the adapter protein Slp65 (also known as Blnk), a key component in precursor-BCR (pre-BCR) signaling, spontaneously develop pre-B cell leukemia. In these leukemias, proliferation is thought to be driven by constitutive Jak3/Stat5 signaling, mostly due to autocrine production of IL-7, together with high surface expression of the pre-BCR. In this study, we investigated whether particular IgH specificities would predispose Slp65-deficient pre-B cells to malignant transformation. Whereas V(H)-D-J(H) junctions were diverse, we found highly restricted Ig V(H) gene usage: 55 out of 60 (~92%) leukemias used a V(H)14/SM7-family gene, mainly V(H)14-1 and V(H)14-2. When combined with surrogate or conventional L chains, these V(H)14 IgH chains did not provide increased proliferative signals or exhibit enhanced poly- or autoreactivity. We therefore conclude that pre-BCR specificity per se did not contribute to oncogenic transformation. Remarkably, in a high proportion of Slp65-deficient leukemias, the nonexpressed IgH allele also harbored a V(H)14-family rearrangement (10 out of 50) or was in the germline configuration (10 out of 50). V(H)14-1 and V(H)14-2 gene regions differed from their neighboring V(H) genes in that they showed active H3K4me3 histone modification marks and germline transcription at the pro-B cell stage in Rag1-deficient mice. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that in Slp65-deficient mice, malignant transformation is largely limited to particular pre-B cells that originate from pro-B cells that had restricted IgH V(H) region accessibility at the time of V(H)-to D-J(H) recombination.

'Dying back' axon degeneration is a prominent feature of many age-related neurodegenerative disorders and is widespread in normal ageing. Although the mechanisms of disease- and age-related losses may differ, both contribute to symptoms. Here, we review recent advances in understanding axon pathology in age-related neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and glaucoma. In particular, we highlight the importance of axonal transport, autophagy, traumatic brain injury, and mitochondrial quality control. We then place these disease mechanisms in the context of changes to axons and dendrites that occur during normal ageing. We discuss what makes ageing such an important risk factor for many neurodegenerative disorders and conclude that the processes of normal ageing and disease combine at the molecular, cellular or systems levels in a range of disorders to produce symptoms. Pathology identical to disease also occurs at the cellular level in most elderly individuals. Thus, normal ageing and age-related disease are inextricably linked and the term 'healthy ageing' downplays the important contributions of cellular pathology. For a full understanding of normal ageing or age-related disease we must study both processes.

The autoimmune regulator (Aire), mediates central tolerance of peripheral self. Its activity in thymic epithelial cells (TECs) directs the ectopic expression of thousands of tissue-restricted antigens (TRAs), causing the deletion of autoreactive thymocytes. The molecular mechanisms orchestrating the breadth of transcriptional regulation by Aire remain unknown. One prominent model capable of explaining both the uniquely high number of Aire-dependent targets and their specificity posits that tissue-specific transcription factors induced by Aire directly activate their canonical targets, exponentially adding to the total number of Aire-dependent TRAs. To test this "Hierarchical Transcription" model, we analysed mice deficient in the pancreatic master transcription factor pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (Pdx1), specifically in TECs (Pdx1(ΔFoxn1) ), for the expression and tolerance of pancreatic TRAs. Surprisingly, we found that lack of Pdx1 in TECs did not reduce the transcription of insulin or somatostatin, or alter glucagon expression. Moreover, in a model of thymic deletion driven by a neo-TRA under the control of the insulin promoter, Pdx1 in TECs was not required to affect thymocyte deletion or the generation of regulatory T (Treg) cells. These findings suggest that the capacity of Aire to regulate expression of a huge array of TRAs relies solely on an unconventional transcriptional mechanism, without intermediary transcription factors.

Embryonic (ES) and epiblast (EpiSC) stem cells are pluripotent but committed to an embryonic lineage fate. Conversely, trophoblast (TS) and extraembryonic endoderm (XEN) stem cells contribute predominantly to tissues of the placenta and yolk sac, respectively. Here we show that each of these four stem cell types is defined by a unique DNA methylation profile. Despite their distinct developmental origin, TS and XEN cells share key epigenomic hallmarks, chiefly characterized by robust DNA methylation of embryo-specific developmental regulators, as well as a subordinate role of 5-hydroxymethylation. We also observe a substantial methylation reinforcement of pre-existing epigenetic repressive marks that specifically occurs in extraembryonic stem cells compared to in vivo tissue, presumably due to continued high Dnmt3b expression levels. These differences establish a major epigenetic barrier between the embryonic and extraembryonic stem cell types. In addition, epigenetic lineage boundaries also separate the two extraembryonic stem cell types by mutual repression of key lineage-specific transcription factors. Thus, global DNA methylation patterns are a defining feature of each stem cell type that underpin lineage commitment and differentiative potency of early embryo-derived stem cells. Our detailed methylation profiles identify a cohort of developmentally regulated sequence elements, such as orphan CpG islands, that will be most valuable to uncover novel transcriptional regulators and pivotal "gatekeeper" genes in pluripotency and lineage differentiation.

We have investigated the contribution of individual phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) Class I isoforms to the regulation of neutrophil survival using (i) a panel of commercially available small molecule isoform-selective PI3K Class I inhibitors, (ii) novel inhibitors, which target single or multiple Class I isoforms (PI3Kα, PI3Kβ, PI3Kδ, and PI3Kγ), and (iii) transgenic mice lacking functional PI3K isoforms (p110δ(KO)γ(KO) or p110γ(KO)). Our data suggest that there is considerable functional redundancy amongst Class I PI3Ks (both Class IA and Class IB) with regard to GM-CSF-mediated suppression of neutrophil apoptosis. Hence pharmacological inhibition of any 3 or more PI3K isoforms was required to block the GM-CSF survival response in human neutrophils, with inhibition of individual or any two isoforms having little or no effect. Likewise, isolated blood neutrophils derived from double knockout PI3K p110δ(KO)γ(KO) mice underwent normal time-dependent constitutive apoptosis and displayed identical GM-CSF mediated survival to wild type cells, but were sensitized to pharmacological inhibition of the remaining PI3K isoforms. Surprisingly, the pro-survival neutrophil phenotype observed in patients with an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) was resilient to inactivation of the PI3K pathway.

The class 1 PI3Ks are lipid kinases with key roles in cell surface receptor-triggered signal transduction pathways. Two isoforms of the catalytic subunits, p110γ and p110δ, are enriched in leucocytes in which they promote activation, cellular growth, proliferation, differentiation and survival through the generation of the second messenger PIP3. Genetic inactivation or pharmaceutical inhibition of these PI3K isoforms in mice result in impaired immune responses and reduced susceptibility to autoimmune and inflammatory conditions. We review the PI3K signal transduction pathways and the effects of inhibition of p110γ and/or p110δ on innate and adaptive immunity. Focusing on rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus we discuss the preclinical evidence and prospects for small molecule inhibitors of p110γ and/or p110δ in autoimmune disease.

Budding yeast centromeres are sequence-defined point centromeres and are, unlike in many other organisms, not embedded in heterochromatin. Here we show that Fun30, a poorly understood SWI/SNF-like chromatin remodeling factor conserved in humans, promotes point centromere function through the formation of correct chromatin architecture at centromeres. Our determination of the genome-wide binding and nucleosome positioning properties of Fun30 shows that this enzyme is consistently enriched over centromeres and that a majority of CENs show Fun30-dependent changes in flanking nucleosome position and/or CEN core micrococcal nuclease accessibility. Fun30 deletion leads to defects in histone variant Htz1 occupancy genome-wide, including at and around most centromeres. FUN30 genetically interacts with CSE4, coding for the centromere-specific variant of histone H3, and counteracts the detrimental effect of transcription through centromeres on chromosome segregation and suppresses transcriptional noise over centromere CEN3. Previous work has shown a requirement for fission yeast and mammalian homologs of Fun30 in heterochromatin assembly. As centromeres in budding yeast are not embedded in heterochromatin, our findings indicate a direct role of Fun30 in centromere chromatin by promoting correct chromatin architecture.

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease triggered by interplay between immune mediators from both innate and adaptive immune systems and skin tissue, in which the IL-23/IL-17 axis is critical. PI3Kδ and PI3Kγ play important roles in various immune cell functions. We found that mice lacking functional PI3Kδ or PI3Kγ are largely protected from imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis-like dermatitis, correlating with reduced IL-17 levels in the lesions, serum, and the draining lymph nodes. TCRγδ T cells were the major IL-17-producing population in the draining lymph nodes and were significantly diminished in IMQ-treated PI3Kδ knockin and PI3Kγ knockout mice. We also show that PI3Kδ and PI3Kγ inhibitors reduced IFN-γ production by human TCRγδ T cells and IL-17 and IFN-γ production by PBMCs from psoriatic or healthy donors. In addition, inhibition of PI3Kγ, but not PI3Kδ, blocked chemotaxis of CCR6(+)IL-17-producing cells from IMQ-treated mice or healthy human donors. Taken together, these data indicate that PI3Kδ and/or PI3Kγ inhibitors should be considered for treating IL-17-driven diseases, such as psoriasis.

Mononucleosomes, the basic building blocks of chromatin, contain two copies of each core histone. The associated posttranslational modifications regulate essential chromatin-dependent processes, yet whether each histone copy is identically modified in vivo is unclear. We demonstrate that nucleosomes in embryonic stem cells, fibroblasts, and cancer cells exist in both symmetrically and asymmetrically modified populations for histone H3 lysine 27 di/trimethylation (H3K27me2/3) and H4K20me1. Further, we obtained direct physical evidence for bivalent nucleosomes carrying H3K4me3 or H3K36me3 along with H3K27me3, albeit on opposite H3 tails. Bivalency at target genes was resolved upon differentiation of ES cells. Polycomb repressive complex 2-mediated methylation of H3K27 was inhibited when nucleosomes contain symmetrically, but not asymmetrically, placed H3K4me3 or H3K36me3. These findings uncover a potential mechanism for the incorporation of bivalent features into nucleosomes and demonstrate how asymmetry might set the stage to diversify functional nucleosome states.

The function of the gastrointestinal tract relies on a monolayer of epithelial cells, which are essential for the uptake of nutrients. The fragile lining requires protection against insults by a diverse array of antigens. This is accomplished by the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues of the gastrointestinal tract, which constitute a highly organized immune organ. In this Review, we discuss several recent findings that provide a compelling link between dietary compounds and the organization and maintenance of immune tissues and lymphocytes in the intestine. We highlight some of the molecular players involved, in particular ligand-activated nuclear receptors in lymphoid cells.

The Kinetic Simulation Algorithm Ontology (KiSAO) supplies information about existing algorithms available for the simulation of Systems Biology models, their characteristics, parameters and inter-relationships. KiSAO enables the unambiguous identification of algorithms from simulation descriptions. Information about analogous methods having similar characteristics and about algorithm parameters incorporated into KiSAO is desirable for simulation tools. To retrieve this information programmatically an application programming interface (API) for KiSAO is needed.

Thymus-derived CD4(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T lymphocytes (Tregs) play a central role in the suppression of immune responses to self-antigens and thus avoid autoimmune disorders. It remains unclear if the specialized thymic niche controls the number of differentiating Tregs. We investigated development of murine Tregs from precursors expressing the naturally very large repertoire of TCRs. By analyzing their developmental kinetics, we observed that differentiating Tregs dwell in the thymus ∼1 d longer than their conventional T cell counterparts. By generating hematopoietic chimeras with very low proportions of trackable precursors, we could follow individual waves of developing T cells in the thymus. We observed strongly increased proportions of Tregs at the end of the waves, confirming that these cells are the last to leave the thymus. To assess whether the thymic niche limits Treg development, we generated hematopoietic chimeras in which very few T cell precursors could develop. The substantial increase in the proportion of Tregs we found in these mice suggested a limiting role of the thymic niche; however, this increase was accounted for entirely by the prolonged thymic dwell time of Tregs. We conclude that, when precursors express a naturally diverse TCR repertoire, the thymic niche does not limit differentiation of Tregs.

Thymic epithelial cells provide unique cues for the lifelong selection and differentiation of a repertoire of functionally diverse T cells. Rendered microRNA (miRNA) deficient, these stromal cells in the mouse lose their capacity to instruct the commitment of hematopoietic precursors to a T cell fate, to effect thymocyte positive selection, and to achieve promiscuous gene expression required for central tolerance induction. Over time, the microenvironment created by miRNA-deficient thymic epithelia assumes the cellular composition and structure of peripheral lymphoid tissue, where thympoiesis fails to be supported. These findings emphasize a global role for miRNA in the maintenance and function of the thymic epithelial cell scaffold and establish a novel mechanism how these cells control peripheral tissue Ag expression to prompt central immunological tolerance.

Recent research into the role of microRNA (miR) in the immune system has identified the miR-29 family as critical regulators of key processes in adaptive immunity. The miR-29 family consists of four members with shared regulatory capacity, namely miR-29a, miR-29b-1, miR-29b-2 and miR-29c. Being expressed in both T and B cells, as well as the main accessory cell types of thymic epithelium and dendritic cells, the miR-29 family has been identified as a putative regulator of immunity due to the predicted suppression of key immunological pathways. The generation of a series of in vivo molecular tools targeting the miR-29 family has identified the critical role of these miR in setting the molecular threshold for three central events in adaptive immunity: (1) control over thymic production of T cells by modulating the threshold for infection-associated thymic involution, (2) creating a neutral threshold for T cell polarization following activation, and (3) setting the threshold for B cell oncogenic transformation. These results identify the miR-29 family as potent immune modulators which have already been exploited through the evolution of a viral mimic and could potentially be exploited further for therapeutic intervention.

Epidemiologic and genetic evidence links type 2 diabetes, obesity, and cancer. The tumor-suppressor phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) has roles in both cellular growth and metabolic signaling. Germline PTEN mutations cause a cancer-predisposition syndrome, providing an opportunity to study the effect of PTEN haploinsufficiency in humans.

The nutritional environment in which the mammalian fetus or infant develop is recognized as influencing the risk of chronic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes and hypertension, in a phenomenon that has become known as developmental programming. The late onset of such diseases in response to earlier transient experiences has led to the suggestion that developmental programming may have an epigenetic component, because epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation or histone tail modifications could provide a persistent memory of earlier nutritional states. One class of genes that has been considered a potential target or mediator of programming events is imprinted genes, because these genes critically depend upon epigenetic modifications for correct expression and because many imprinted genes have roles in controlling fetal growth as well as neonatal and adult metabolism. In this study, we have used an established model of developmental programming-isocaloric protein restriction to female mice during gestation or lactation-to examine whether there are effects on expression and DNA methylation of imprinted genes in the offspring. We find that although expression of some imprinted genes in liver of offspring is robustly and sustainably changed, methylation of the differentially methylated regions (DMRs) that control their monoallelic expression remains largely unaltered. We conclude that deregulation of imprinting through a general effect on DMR methylation is unlikely to be a common factor in developmental programming.

Affinity proteomics is the field of proteome analysis based on the use of antibodies and other binding reagents as protein-specific detection probes. In this review, the particular strengths of affinity methods for determination of protein localization, functional characterization, biomarker discovery and intracellular applications, and their resulting impact in basic and clinical research are highlighted. An additional focus is on the requirements for systematic binder generation and current large-scale binder projects, including bioinformatic frameworks for epitope selection and for documentation of available binding reagents and their performance. In addition to current affinity proteomics methods and applications, including arrays of proteins, binders, lysates and tissues, approaches coupling mass spectrometry-based proteomics and affinity proteomics are reviewed.